1.1 Research questions

This research is guided by the following research question:

1. What obstacle do Bhutanese teachers encounter in delivering primary science education?

2. What pedagogical strategies do teachers employ to overcome these instructional barriers?

1.2 Objectives of the study

The study aims to fulfill the following objectives:

1. To identify and categorize the key instructional challenges faced by Bhutanese primary science teachers.

2. To document and analyze the adaptive strategies and pedagogical practices teachers use in response to these challenges.

3. To inform educational policy and professional development initiatives that support contextualized, inquiry-based science instruction in Bhutan.

2.1 Contextualizing science education in Bhutan: conceptual foundations and curriculum design challenges

Science education at the primary level is globally regarded as essential for nurturing foundational scientific literacy, promoting inquiry-driven thinking, and encouraging environmental consciousness among young learners (National Research Council, 2012; Lederman & Lederman, 2014). Its objectives extend beyond cognitive development, preparing students to engage meaningfully with the natural world and participate responsibly in future scientific discourse. In Bhutan, these aims are embedded within the broader national vision of Gross National Happiness (GNH), a development philosophy that prioritizes sustainability, cultural preservation, and holistic well-being (Ura, Alkire, Zangmo & Wangdi, 2012).

Despite strong ideological alignment between the goals of primary science education and Bhutan’s national ethos, empirical studies reveal persistent implementation challenges. Specifically, teachers struggle to convert curriculum intentions into effective classroom practice, particularly in rural and multigrade settings where resource constraints and learner diversity are prominent (Dorji et al., 2022a).

Curricular reforms, most notably the New Approach to Primary Education (NAPE) have aimed to localize science content and promote experiential learning. However, the reality within classrooms suggests that the science curriculum remains dense, abstract, and developmentally misaligned. Studies have highlighted the heavy cognitive load placed on learners due to lexically complex content and insufficient scaffolding of scientific concepts (Dorji et al., 2022a). These difficulties mirror findings from comparable educational contexts across South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. For example, research in Nepal and Ethiopia has documented similar tensions between curriculum abstraction and learner engagement, particularly in under-resourced schools (Mereku & Mereku, 2014). Such comparisons affirm a broader pattern: that curriculum relevance, instructional adaptability, and contextual responsiveness are pivotal in ensuring equitable access to meaningful science education.

In Bhutan’s case, addressing these curriculum challenges requires more than material provision it demands pedagogical innovation, localized planning, and an acknowledgment of teacher agency within diverse instructional landscapes. Understanding how Bhutanese teachers interpret and navigate curriculum complexity is therefore a critical step toward educational reform that is both principled and practical.

2.2 Pedagogical orientations and adaptive practices in Bhutanese primary science education

The instructional practices adopted by primary science teachers in Bhutan are shaped not only by curricular structures and resource availability but also by deeper epistemic beliefs about the nature of scientific knowledge. Research indicates that many Bhutanese teachers perceive science as a fixed body of facts rather than a dynamic, inquiry-driven process (Dorji & Namgyel, 2024). These beliefs contribute to a pedagogical orientation that favors didactic instruction, where transmission of knowledge is prioritized over exploration and student-led inquiry (Dorji et al., 2022b).

In a cross-sectional study involving 195 Bhutanese teachers, Dorji and Namgyel (2024) found that a majority lacked conceptual understanding of how scientific knowledge is justified, constructed, and revised. This epistemic stance results in limited engagement with constructivist methods, undermining efforts to foster critical thinking and scientific reasoning among students. Such findings align with international literature, where teacher beliefs are shown to significantly influence instructional quality and the implementation of inquiry-based learning (Anoling, Abella, Cagatao & Bautista, 2024; Capps & Crawford, 2012).

Despite these entrenched orientations, Bhutanese teachers demonstrate remarkable pedagogical resilience. Within the constraints of limited resources, large class sizes, and complex classroom dynamics, educators have crafted localized strategies that leverage cultural and environmental contexts to enhance science learning. Thinley, Chhetri & Powel (2022) document the effectiveness of place-based education, where scientific principles are taught through engagement with local landscapes, agricultural practices, and traditional ecological knowledge. This approach not only grounds abstract concepts in familiar settings but also fosters a sense of relevance and ownership among students.

Complementing this, Tshering Pem (2022) reports that play-based learning significantly improves student comprehension and participation in primary science classes. Through games, manipulatives, and exploration activities, teachers create opportunities for active learning—even in the absence of formal science kits or laboratories. These innovations are often teacher-driven, informal, and shaped by immediate classroom needs.

Taken together, these findings illuminate a dual narrative in Bhutanese primary science education: one of epistemic conservatism that constrains pedagogical openness, and another of adaptive ingenuity where teachers modify instruction in ways that reflect contextual realities. Addressing the former requires sustained professional development that reshapes teacher conceptions of science as an evolving discipline. Supporting the latter demands structural mechanisms that recognize, document, and scale teacher-led innovations through collaborative learning communities, mentoring, and curricular reform.

2.3 Resource and pedagogical constraints

Despite Bhutan’s commitment to holistic and inclusive education under the framework of Gross National Happiness, systemic resource constraints continue to hinder the effective delivery of primary science education. In many cases, science instruction is limited to textbook-based delivery, which reinforces rote learning and restricts opportunities for conceptual exploration. The absence of such resources not only impedes cognitive development but also exacerbates educational inequities between urban and rural learners (Childs, Gyamtso, Tenzin, Sopromadze & Thompson, 2025).

Infrastructure disparities further compound these challenges. Schools in remote areas often lack basic facilities, including electricity, internet access, and dedicated science spaces. These limitations restrict the integration of digital learning tools and prevent the implementation of inquiry-based pedagogies that are central to modern science education. As a result, students in under-resourced schools are systematically disadvantaged in their exposure to scientific practices and processes.

Bhutan’s mountainous geography and dispersed population have necessitated the widespread adoption of multigrade teaching, particularly in rural and semi-rural regions. While multigrade classrooms have expanded access to education, they present unique pedagogical challenges. Teachers are required to differentiate instruction across multiple grade levels simultaneously, manage diverse learning needs, and pace the curriculum in ways that accommodate varying developmental stages (Kivunja & Kuyini, 2015). These demands are intensified in science education, where conceptual progression and hands-on engagement are essential.

Moreover, teachers report limited training in inclusive pedagogies, which affects their ability to support students with learning differences, language barriers, or socio-emotional needs (Childs et al., 2025). In the absence of targeted professional development, many educators rely on uniform instructional strategies that fail to address learner diversity. This not only undermines student engagement but also limits the effectiveness of science education as a tool for empowerment and equity. Addressing resource gaps, strengthening infrastructure, and equipping teachers with inclusive and multigrade-specific pedagogical skills are essential steps toward realizing Bhutan’s vision of equitable and contextually relevant science education.

2.4 Strengthening teacher capacity and student engagement in Bhutanese science education

Teacher capacity is a critical determinant of instructional quality and student achievement in science education. In Bhutan, while educators express a strong commitment to professional growth, opportunities for sustained research engagement and collaborative learning remain limited. Wangdi and Tharchen (2021) found that teachers perceive research as beneficial for improving classroom practice and policy relevance, yet systemic barriers such as time constraints, lack of incentives, and restricted access to academic resources impede their participation. They also highlight that although teachers value inquiry and reflection, institutional structures rarely support their involvement in research or evidence-informed dialogue.

This disconnects between aspiration and opportunity has implications for pedagogical innovation. Without access to professional learning communities, mentorship, or research networks, teachers are less likely to experiment with new instructional strategies or contribute to localized knowledge production (Seden, Dorji, Yangdon, Wangmo & Rinchen, 2024). Moreover, the absence of structured platforms for sharing classroom experiences limits the scalability of successful practices and reinforces reliance on traditional, didactic methods.

Student engagement in science is closely tied to these instructional dynamics. Studies show that Bhutanese students often perceive science as abstract, difficult, and disconnected from their lived experiences (Dorji et al., 2022b). This perception is shaped by curriculum design, teaching methods, and classroom climate. When science is taught primarily through rote memorization and textbook-based instruction, students struggle to find relevance and meaning in the content. As a result, motivation declines and achievement gaps widen.

However, emerging evidence suggests that experiential and inquiry-based approaches can significantly enhance student engagement and learning outcomes. Tshering Pem (2022) demonstrated that play-based and hands-on activities foster curiosity, improve comprehension, and create inclusive learning environments. Despite their promise, such approaches remain underutilized due to systemic constraints including limited resources, insufficient training, and rigid curricular expectations.

Addressing these challenges requires a dual focus: empowering teachers through meaningful professional development and redesigning science instruction to prioritize relevance, inquiry, and student agency. Institutional support for teacher-led research, collaborative planning, and reflective practice can catalyze pedagogical transformation. Simultaneously, embedding experiential learning into the curriculum and assessment frameworks can help students connect scientific concepts to their everyday lives, thereby improving both engagement and achievement.

Despite a growing body of literature on science education in Bhutan, several critical gaps remain that limit the depth, applicability, and scalability of current findings. Most notably, there is a lack of longitudinal, classroom-based research that tracks pedagogical practices and student outcomes over extended periods. Existing studies tend to rely on cross-sectional designs which offer limited insight into how instructional strategies, teacher agency, and student engagement evolve over time (Arzi, 2015; Shapiro, 2004). Furthermore, while Bhutanese teachers are known to adapt creatively to resource constraints, few studies have systematically examined how teacher agency and contextual adaptations develop across different stages of professional growth or in response to shifting curricular demands. Understanding these trajectories is essential for designing professional development programs that are responsive, sustainable, and locally grounded (Wangdi & Tharchen, 2021).

Another underexplored area is the role of multilingualism and cultural diversity in shaping science pedagogy. Bhutan’s classrooms are linguistically rich and culturally varied, yet most research assumes a monolingual instructional context. This oversight neglects the cognitive and affective dimensions of learning science in a second or third language, as well as the potential for indigenous knowledge systems to enrich scientific understanding (Tshering, Matthews & Adlington, 2024).

3.1 Research design

This study adopted a qualitative phenomenological approach to explore how Bhutanese primary science teachers experience and respond to the challenges they face in the classroom. Rather than just identifying what these educators encounter, the research focused on their own interpretations and actions, how they make sense of abstract curricula, limited resources, and mixed-ability classrooms, and how they adapt their teaching practices in response. Phenomenology was chosen because it allowed the study to foreground teachers’ personal narratives and contextual reflections, offering deeper insight into the social, cultural, and institutional conditions shaping science education in Bhutan. As Van Manen (2016) argues, phenomenological inquiry helps us understand not just the events but the meaning behind them, which is especially important in educational research where teaching is deeply embedded in human interaction and lived experience.

3.2 Participant selection and sampling

Participants were selected using purposive sampling, ensuring that each teacher had direct and relevant experience teaching science at the primary level. A total of 3 primary science teachers were recruited from 3 government schools. The inclusion criteria required a minimum of one year of teaching experience in primary science. Among the participants, 2 were female and 1 were male. Their average teaching experience was 6.8 years, with a standard deviation of 2.4 years. Grade levels taught ranged from Class IV to Class VI, reflecting the typical structure of Bhutanese primary schools.

3.3 Data collection methods

Data was collected through two complementary qualitative methods: semi-structured interviews and classroom observations. Interviews provided rich insights into participants’ perceptions, beliefs, and personal strategies. Researcher conducted face-to-face, each interview lasted between 50 to 60 minutes and was audio recorded with verbal consent. Open-ended questions focused on teaching challenges, resource limitations, curriculum interpretation, and personal adaptations.

To triangulate the data, classroom observations were carried out in 3 science classes using a structured observation protocol aligned with Bhutan’s Professional Standards for Teachers. Observations emphasized teacher-student interaction, use of materials, engagement strategies, and contextual adaptation of content. Detailed field notes were recorded and coded soon after each session, allowing for thematic consistency across the dataset.

3.4 Data analysis approach

To analyze the qualitative data, we employed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase thematic analysis framework, which offers a rigorous yet flexible approach for identifying patterns in rich, contextual narratives. The process began with familiarization, an immersive phase where interview transcripts and classroom observation notes were read repeatedly to gain a holistic sense of the data. During this phase, initial impressions and reflective memos were documented to begin sensitizing the researchers to emerging issues related to pedagogy, resource constraints, and instructional adaptation. Next, we generated initial codes inductively, capturing nuanced aspects of teachers’ lived experiences, including moments of improvisation, conceptual confusion, and expressions of professional frustration. Coding was conducted manually and then refined using QDA Miner lite qualitative data analysis software, which facilitated organization, hierarchical structuring, and pattern detection across datasets. The use of software also enabled us to visualize the themes of frequency and co-occurrence, supporting the analytical rigor of the study.

In the third and fourth phases, coded excerpts were collated into preliminary thematic groupings. These included early constructs like “local resource improvisation” and “difficulty teaching abstract concepts.” The researchers engaged in multiple rounds of discussion and re-coding to ensure these themes were coherent, distinct, and substantively relevant to the study’s objectives. Phase five involved clearly defining and naming themes. At this stage, each theme was accompanied by illustrative quotes, classroom descriptions, and researcher commentary that clarified its scope and significance. These thematic labels, such as “Contextual ingenuity” and “Challenges in mixed-ability classrooms” were chosen not only for analytical clarity but also to honor the teachers’ own language and framing of their experiences.

Finally, in phase six, we synthesized our findings into a detailed narrative that aligned with the research questions and illuminated the socio-pedagogical landscape of Bhutanese primary science education. To enhance credibility, peer debriefing sessions were held with two independent researchers who reviewed codes, challenged assumptions, and validated theme boundaries. Their input strengthened our interpretive trustworthiness and helped mitigate potential researcher bias.

3.5 Ethical considerations

All ethical protocols were observed throughout the study. Approval was granted by the Royal University of Bhutan’s Research Ethics Board, and teachers were informed of their rights to participate voluntarily, withdraw at any time, and have their identities protected. Pseudonyms were assigned to all participants in both transcripts and final reporting to ensure confidentiality.

4.1 Instructional challenges faced by teachers

The study revealed four major instructional challenges consistently encountered by Bhutanese primary science teachers. These were identified through thematic analysis of transcripts and triangulated with direct classroom observations.

4.2 Adaptive strategies employed by teachers

Despite the constraints outlined above, teachers utilized various adaptive strategies to facilitate learning, confirmed through interview comments and classroom observations.

4.3 Findings in relation to research objectives

This study revealed a layered picture of what it means to teach science in Bhutanese primary classrooms. On one hand, teachers face real and recurring challenges like the difficulty of making abstract concepts accessible to young learners, the lack of teaching materials and the pressures of mixed-ability classrooms. These are not just logistical hurdles; they affect how students connect with science and how teachers feel about their own practice. But just as clearly, the data showed how teachers aren’t just passive recipients of these constraints. They respond with ingenuity and care repurpose everyday items as teaching tools, anchoring science in culturally familiar examples, relying on visuals to aid memory, and fostering peer support when individual help isn’t possible. These adaptive strategies don’t just fill gaps they reflect a deep local way of making science meaningful.

Together, these findings offer more than just a snapshot of classroom challenges. They give us insight into the practical wisdom of teachers operating in resource-limited and culturally diverse contexts. That wisdom deserves to be part of future reforms, whether we are talking about curriculum design, professional development, or how we define effective science education itself.

4.4 Discussion

The findings of this study reaffirm and deepen our understanding of the instructional barriers Bhutanese primary science teachers contend with particularly when dealing with abstract scientific concepts. Teachers consistently described how limited access to visual aids and contextual materials made these topics difficult to convey to young learners. These observations echo previous research by Dorji et al. (2022b), which highlighted how educators often hold static, content-centered views of science that hinder their ability to translate complex ideas into age-appropriate instruction. This study also observed a strong reliance on textbook-based teaching and verbal explanation. They described Bhutan’s primary science curriculum as overly dense, lacking developmental progression, and rarely scaffolded for gradual conceptual understanding. Similarly, the limited presence of inquiry-based learning or hands-on experimentation in classroom practice aligns with findings by Childs et al. (2011), who described Bhutan’s science curriculum as fragmented and overly prescriptive, offering little room for flexibility or exploration.

Yet this research goes a step further by documenting teachers’ adaptive efforts responses not just born out of necessity but marked by creativity and commitment. In classrooms with few formal materials, teachers used familiar, locally available items such as stones, jars, leaves, and cooking utensils to make scientific principles visible and tangible. Cultural analogies helped students relate concepts to their everyday lives, for example, connecting sodium to the salt used in family meals, or explaining germination through backyard planting traditions. These strategies reflect a form of pedagogical resilience where teachers draw on contextual wisdom to bridge systemic gaps.

While Thinley et al. (2022) and Tshering Pem (2022) have discussed the benefits of place-based and play-based science learning, this study provides real-time classroom evidence of such practices in action. It shows how educators improvise, reinterpret curriculum, and recalibrate their teaching to keep students engaged even in the absence of ideal conditions. These findings enrich the growing discourse on teacher agency and classroom innovation in resource-constrained settings, and point toward the need for reforms that support, rather than suppress, localized pedagogical ingenuity.

4.5 Implications of the findings

The findings from this study have significant implications for education policy, curriculum design, and teacher professional development in Bhutan’s primary science education system.

4.6 Strengths and limitations of the study

This study presents notable strengths by integrating both interview and observational data, thereby enhancing its validity through methodological triangulation. It captures real-time classroom practices, providing granular insights into teacher behavior. Additionally, the focus on under-researched eastern districts of Bhutan adds a valuable geographic dimension to the literature, addressing a gap in regional representation.

However, the study’s scope is constrained by certain limitations. The small sample size, limited to three interviews and three classroom observations, may not adequately reflect broader national trends. Lastly, the brief observational window may have omitted longitudinal shifts in instructional strategies, limiting the depth of analysis regarding adaptive teaching practices over time.

Future research could expand the sample across multiple districts and include longitudinal classroom observations. Incorporating student perspectives and learning outcomes would also strengthen the analysis. Mixed-method designs combining qualitative and quantitative data could offer a more comprehensive understanding of instructional efficacy.